[ C programming] Introduction

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Computer

Basically it is a fast calculating machine which is now a days used for variety of uses ranging from house hold works to space technology. The credit of invention of this machine goes to the English Mathematician Charles Babbage.

Types of Computers:

Based on nature, computers are classified into Analog computers and Digital computers. The former one deals with measuring physical quantities ( concerned with continuous variables ) which are of late rarely used. The digital computer operates by counting and it deals with the discrete variables.
There is a combined form called Hybrid computer, which has both features. Based on application computers are classified as special purpose computers and general computers. As the name tells special computers are designed to perform certain specific tasks where as the other category is designed to cater the needs of variety of users.

Basic structure of a digital computer

The main components of a computer are Input unit (IU), Central Processing unit (CPU) and Output unit (OU). The information like data ,programs etc are passed to the computer through input devices. The keyboard, mouse, floppy disk, CD, DVD, joystick etc are certain input devices. The output device is to get information from a computer after processing . VDU (Visual Display Unit), Printer, Floppy disk, CD etc are output devices.
The brain of a computer is CPU. It has three components- Memory unit, Control unit and Arithmetic and Logical unit (ALU)- Memory unit also called storage device is to store information. Two types memory are there in a computer. They are RAM (random access memory) and ROM (read only memory ). When a program is called, it is loaded and processed in RAM. When the computer is switched off, what ever stored in RAM will be deleted. So it is a temporary memory. Where as ROM is a permanent memory, where data, program etc are stored for future use. Inside a computer there is storage device called Hard disk, where data are stored and can be accessed at any time.
The control unit is for controlling the execution and interpreting of instructions stored in the memory. ALU is the unit where the arithmetic and logical operations are performed. The information to a computer is transformed to groups of binary digits, called bit. The length of bit varies from computer to computer, from 8 to 64. A group of 8 bits is called a Byte and a byte generally represents one alphanumeric ( Alphabets and Numerals) character. The Physical components of a computer are called hard wares. But for the machine to work it requires certain programs ( A set of instructions is called a program ). They are called soft wares. There are two types of soft wares – System soft ware and Application soft ware – System soft ware includes Operating systems, Utility programs and Language processors.

ASCII Codes:

American standard code for information interchange. These are binary codes for alpha numeric data and are used for printers and terminals that are connected to a computer systems for alphabetizing and sorting.

Operating Systems

The set of instructions which resides in the computer and governs the system are called operating systems, without which the machine will never function. They are the medium of communication between a computer and the user. DOS, Windows, Linux, Unix etc are Operating Systems.

Utility Programs

These programs are developed by the manufacturer for the users to do various tasks. Word, Excel, Photoshop, Paint etc are some of them.
Languages.
These programs facilitate the users to make their own programs. User’s programs are converted to machine oriented and the computer does the rest of works.
Application Programs
These programs are written by users for specific purposes.

Computer Languages

They are of three types –
1 Machine Language ( Low level language )
2 Assembly language ( Middle level language )
3 User Oriented language ( Higher level language )
Machine language depends on the hard ware and comprises of 0 and 1 .This is tough to write as one must know the internal structure of the computer. At the same time assembly language makes use of English like words and symbols. With the help of special programs called Assembler, assembly language is converted to machine oriented language. Here also a programmer faces practical difficulties. To over come this hurdles user depends on Higher level languages, which are far easier to learn and use. To write programs in higher level language, programmer need not know the characteristics of a computer. Here he uses English alphabets, numerals and some special characters. Some of the Higher level languages are FORTRAN, BASIC, COBOL, PASCAL, C, C++, ADA etc. We use C to write programs. Note that Higher level languages can not directly be followed by a computer. It requires the help of certain soft wares to convert it into machine coded instructions. These soft wares are called Compiler, Interpreter, and Assembler. The major difference between a compiler and an interpreter is that compiler compiles the user’s program into machine coded by reading the whole program at a stretch where as Interpreter translates the program by reading it line by line. C and BASIC are an Interpreter where as FORTRAN is a

PROGRAMMING METHODOLOGY

A computer is used to a solve a problem.
Steps
1 Analyze the problem
2 Identify the variables involved
3 Design the solution
4 Write the program
5 Enter it into a computer
6 Compile the program and correct errors
7 Correct the logical errors if any
8 Test the program with data
9 Document the program

Algorithms

Step by step procedure for solving a problem is called
algorithm.
Example
To make a coffee
Step1: Take proper quantity of water in a cooking pan
Step2: Place the pan on a gas stow and light it
Step3: Add Coffee powder when it boils
Step4: Put out the light and add sufficient quantity of sugar and
milk
Step5: Pour into cup and have it.
To add two numbers
Step1: Input the numbers as x, y
Step2: sum=x + y
Step3: print sum
For a better understanding of an algorithm, it is represented pictorially.
The pictorial representation of an

algorithm is called a Flow Chart. For
this certain pictures are used.

Consider a problem of multiplying two numbers
Algorithm
Step1: Input the numbers as a and b
Step2: find the product a x b
Step3: Print the result

Flow chart

In the above example execution is done one after another and straight forward. But such straight forward problems occur very rarely. Some times we have to depend on decision making at certain stage in a normal flow of execution. This
is done by testing a condition and appropriate path of flow is selected. For
example consider the following problem
To find the highest of three numbers
Algorithm
Step 1: read the numbers as x ,y and z
Step 2: compare x and y
Step 3: if x > y then compare x with z and find the greater
Step 4: Otherwise compare y with z and find the greater
Flow Chart :

Exercise: Write Algorithm and flow chart for the solution to the

problem
1. To find the sum of n, say 10, numbers.
2. To find the factorial of n , say 10.
3. To find the sum of the series 1+x+x2+x3+………. + xn
4. To find the sum of two matrices.
5. To find the scalar product of two vectors
6. To find the Fibonacci series up to n
7. To find gcd of two numbers

Some Importantant links below with reports.just view the link below. if u want any project report just search any project on our search box
Arduino interesting projects:   
Arduino 30 simple and good projects 
Atmega projects lists
Android Electronics projects lists
Rf based Projects with report
engineering study notes 
GSM GPS based projects with report
Bluetooth based projects with reports
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